Atonement

Atonement is a 16th-century English coinage from at + one + ment, meaning the act of bringing into a state of being at one[1]. The word was constructed to express reconciliation between estranged parties, particularly between God and humanity[1]. The Hebrew term it most often translates is kippur, used in expressions like Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement) and in priestly literature about the sacrificial system in Leviticus[2]. Greek New Testament terms translated as atonement include hilasmos, hilasterion, and katallage (reconciliation)[3].

Christian traditions explain atonement through multiple models rather than one single formula.

In Jewish tradition, atonement is associated above all with Yom Kippur, the annual day of fasting, prayer, and confession that the Torah prescribes for the cleansing of the people from sin[4]. In Temple-period Judaism, atonement was tied to the sacrificial system and especially to the high priest’s entry into the Holy of Holies on Yom Kippur[2]. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, rabbinic Judaism reframed atonement around prayer, repentance (teshuvah), and acts of righteousness (tzedakah)[5].

In Christian thought, atonement names how the death and resurrection of Christ reconcile humanity to God[6]. Christian traditions have developed multiple models or theories of atonement, each highlighting a different aspect of what Christ’s saving work accomplishes[6]. Major historical models include Christus Victor (Christ as conqueror of sin, death, and the devil), the satisfaction theory (associated with Anselm of Canterbury, with Christ’s obedience satisfying divine honor), penal substitution (with Christ bearing the penalty deserved by sinners, prominent in Reformed theology), moral influence theories (Christ’s suffering as transformative example), and various Eastern Orthodox emphases on healing, theosis, and the recapitulation of humanity in Christ[6][7]. Most contemporary Christian theologians treat these as complementary models rather than competing claims[7].

Atonement theology is one of the most contested topics in modern Christian thought[7]. Gustaf Aulen’s 1931 book Christus Victor argued for the recovery of the patristic Christus Victor model against the dominance of satisfaction and penal substitution theories[6]. Contemporary theologians including Hans Boersma, Fleming Rutledge, and many others have continued the discussion[7]. Jewish-Christian dialogue has revisited what atonement means across the two traditions, noting both overlap and significant difference[5].

• The Crucifixionby Fleming Rutledge
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• Christus Victorby Gustaf Aulen
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