Meditation

Meditation in English derives from the Latin meditari (to ponder, to think over, to reflect upon)[1]. In religious studies the term is used broadly for disciplined contemplative practices across many traditions. The underlying practices are named with distinct technical terms in each tradition: dhyana and samadhi in Sanskrit, jhana in Pali, zazen in Japanese Zen, dhikr in Sufism, hesychia in Christian contemplative tradition[2].

meditation is not one thing; methods, goals, and theological assumptions differ widely.

Buddhist meditation is the most extensively developed and systematized contemplative tradition[3]. Theravada distinguishes samatha (calming, concentration) and vipassana (insight) practices[3]. The forty traditional objects of samatha meditation include breath, loving-kindness, mindfulness of death, and contemplation of the colors and elements. Vipassana practice investigates the changing nature of experience to develop insight into impermanence, suffering, and non-self.

Mahayana traditions develop these forms further. Zen centers on zazen (seated meditation), with shikantaza (just sitting) and koan investigation as major methods. Pure Land traditions emphasize nembutsu (recitation of Amitabha's name) as a contemplative practice. Vajrayana includes elaborate visualization, mantra, and deity yoga practices[4].

Hindu traditions include extensive meditation, particularly within yoga. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras describe an eight-limbed path culminating in dhyana (sustained meditation) and samadhi (absorption)[5]. Devotional traditions emphasize contemplation of God, deity, or guru. Vedanta traditions practice inquiry into the self (atma-vichara).

Christian contemplative tradition includes the Jesus Prayer in Eastern Orthodox practice, Lectio Divina in Benedictine tradition, centering prayer in modern Catholic practice, and various Protestant contemplative practices[6]. Jewish contemplative traditions include Kabbalistic meditation and the practices of Hasidism. Sufi dhikr and various Sufi meditation methods develop the contemplative dimension of Islam.

Modern secular mindfulness developed largely from Buddhist sources, particularly through the work of Jon Kabat-Zinn in the late 20th century[7]. The secular adaptation has produced major literatures in psychology, medicine, and corporate culture while raising ongoing questions about how much of the original framework is preserved.

Comparative meditation studies has produced substantial literature. Robert Sharf, Halvor Eifring, and others have examined how meditation traditions developed within specific religious frameworks. Cognitive science and neuroscience research on meditation has grown extensively since the 1990s, with significant collaboration between scientists and traditional practitioners[8].

• Mindfulness in Plain Englishby Bhante Henepola Gunaratana
  book
• The Cloud of Unknowingby Anonymous (14th century)
  primary source