Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam structure the core religious obligations for Sunni Muslims: [2][3]

Shahada (Declaration of Faith): The sincere recitation of the declaration that there is no god but God and Muhammad is His messenger. Salat (Prayer): Five daily prayers performed at prescribed times (dawn, midday, afternoon, sunset, and evening), facing the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca. Zakat (Almsgiving): An obligatory charitable contribution, typically 2.5% of accumulated wealth, distributed to those in need. Sawm (Fasting): Fasting from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan, abstaining from food, drink, and other physical needs. Hajj (Pilgrimage): A pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim who is physically and financially able must undertake at least once in their lifetime. [2][3]

Shia Muslims observe similar practices but may organize them differently, sometimes listing additional principles such as justice (adalah) and the imamate. [2][3]

Friday (Jumu'ah) congregational prayer is an important weekly observance, typically held at a mosque with a sermon (khutbah). Dietary laws (halal) prohibit pork and alcohol and require that meat be slaughtered according to specific guidelines. [2][3]

Major holidays include Eid al-Fitr (marking the end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (commemorating Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son, coinciding with the Hajj). Shia Muslims also observe Ashura, commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali at Karbala. Mawlid (the Prophet's birthday) is celebrated in many Muslim communities, though some consider it an innovation. [2][3]

The Quran is the primary scripture of Islam, believed by Muslims to be the verbatim word of God revealed to Muhammad over approximately 23 years (c. 610-632 CE). It consists of 114 chapters (surahs) of varying length, arranged roughly from longest to shortest rather than chronologically. The Quran addresses theology, law, ethics, narrative, and eschatology, and is recited in Arabic in worship regardless of the worshipper's native language. [2][3]

"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. Praise be to God, Lord of the Worlds.", Quran 1:1-2, Marmaduke Pickthall translation, 1930 (public domain). This opening of the Fatiha is recited in every unit of Muslim prayer. [6][2][3]

The Hadith literature, collections of reports about the sayings, actions, and approvals of Muhammad, serves as the second major source of Islamic guidance. Sunni Muslims recognize six major hadith collections (the "Six Books"), with those compiled by al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj considered the most authoritative. Shia Muslims maintain their own hadith collections, which also include reports from the Imams. [2][3]

Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) draws on the Quran, Hadith, scholarly consensus (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas) to derive legal and ethical rulings. Four major Sunni legal schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali) and the Ja'fari school in Shia Islam represent different methodological approaches to interpreting these sources. [2][3]

Islam is the world's second-largest and fastest-growing major religion, with approximately 1.9 to 2.0 billion adherents. Muslims constitute majorities in approximately 50 countries across the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. [1][4]

The largest Muslim-majority country by population is Indonesia (approximately 230 million Muslims), followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. India, while Hindu-majority, has one of the world's largest Muslim populations (approximately 200 million). Significant Muslim communities also exist in China, Russia, Europe, and North America. [1][4]

Sunni Muslims constitute approximately 85-90% of the global Muslim population, while Shia Muslims represent roughly 10-15%, concentrated primarily in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Azerbaijan, and parts of Lebanon. Ibadi Muslims, found mainly in Oman, represent a smaller distinct tradition. [1][4][2][3]

Islam is projected to grow significantly in the coming decades due to higher fertility rates and a younger demographic profile compared to other major religions. Some projections suggest that Islam could approach Christianity in total adherent count by mid-century. Muslim communities in Europe and North America have grown substantially through immigration and conversion. [1][4]

Islamic history spans nearly 1,400 years and encompasses vast geographic and cultural diversity: [2][3]

c. 570 CE: Birth of Muhammad in Mecca. c. 610 CE: Muhammad receives the first Quranic revelations. 622 CE: The Hijra, Muhammad and his followers migrate from Mecca to Medina, marking year one of the Islamic calendar. 630 CE: Muhammad and his followers enter Mecca; the Kaaba is rededicated to monotheistic worship. 632 CE: Death of Muhammad; Abu Bakr becomes the first caliph (Sunni view). 632-661 CE: The Rashidun (Rightly Guided) Caliphate; rapid expansion across the Middle East and North Africa. 661-750 CE: The Umayyad Caliphate, based in Damascus. 680 CE: Battle of Karbala; martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, a defining event for Shia Islam. 750-1258 CE: The Abbasid Caliphate, based in Baghdad; a period of significant cultural and scientific achievement. 711-1492: Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus). 1299-1922: The Ottoman Empire, one of the longest-lasting Islamic empires. 1947: Partition of India creates Pakistan as a Muslim-majority state. 1979: Iranian Revolution establishes an Islamic republic. 21st century: Islam continues to grow globally, with increasing diversity of practice and interpretation. [2][3][1]

The two largest branches of Islam are Sunni and Shia, a division rooted in a 7th-century disagreement over the rightful succession to Muhammad. [2][3]

Sunni Islam: Comprising approximately 85-90% of Muslims worldwide, Sunni Islam recognizes the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) as legitimate successors to Muhammad. Sunni jurisprudence is organized into four major legal schools: Hanafi (the largest, predominant in South Asia, Turkey, and Central Asia), Maliki (North and West Africa), Shafi'i (East Africa, Southeast Asia), and Hanbali (Saudi Arabia). These schools differ in methodology but recognize each other's legitimacy. [1][2][3]

Shia Islam: Comprising approximately 10-15% of Muslims, Shia Islam holds that leadership should have passed directly to Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and then to his descendants (the Imams). Major Shia groups include the Twelvers (the largest, predominant in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon), the Ismailis, and the Zaidis. [1][2][3]

Ibadi Islam: A distinct tradition found primarily in Oman, predating the Sunni-Shia division in some respects. [2][3]

Sufism: The mystical dimension of Islam, found within both Sunni and Shia contexts, emphasizing the inner, spiritual path toward closeness to God. Sufi orders (tariqas) such as the Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, and Mevlevi have played significant roles in Islamic history and culture. [2][3]

Major Islamic holidays follow the lunar Hijri calendar, so their dates shift approximately 11 days earlier each year relative to the Gregorian calendar: [2][3]

Eid al-Fitr: A joyous celebration marking the end of Ramadan, featuring communal prayers, feasting, charity, and family gatherings. Eid al-Adha: The "Festival of Sacrifice," commemorating Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son. It coincides with the Hajj pilgrimage and involves the ritual sacrifice of an animal, with meat distributed to family, friends, and those in need. Ramadan: The ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which Muslims fast from dawn to sunset. It commemorates the month in which the Quran was first revealed. Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Power): Observed during the last ten nights of Ramadan, believed to be the night the first Quranic revelation was received. Mawlid an-Nabi: The birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, celebrated in many Muslim communities with prayers, recitations, and gatherings, though some Muslims consider this observance an innovation. Ashura: The 10th of Muharram, observed as a day of fasting by many Sunni Muslims and as a day of mourning by Shia Muslims commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala. Islamic New Year (1 Muharram): Marks the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar year. [2][3]

Islam has no single centralized religious authority comparable to the papacy in Catholicism. Religious leadership is distributed among scholars, jurists, and community leaders, with structures varying by tradition and region. [2][3]

In Sunni Islam, religious authority rests primarily with the ulama (scholars) who are trained in Quranic interpretation, hadith studies, and jurisprudence. Muftis issue fatwas (legal opinions), and qadis serve as judges in Islamic courts where applicable. Institutions like Al-Azhar University in Cairo carry significant scholarly prestige. The imam who leads prayers at a mosque may be a trained scholar or a respected community member. [2][3]

In Shia Islam, the clergy are more hierarchically organized. Ayatollahs and Grand Ayatollahs serve as the highest-ranking scholars, with the concept of marja (source of emulation) guiding the faithful in matters of religious law. In Iran, the doctrine of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) gives senior clerics a direct role in governance. [2][3]

Sufi orders are led by sheikhs or pirs who guide disciples along the spiritual path. The caliphate, historically the primary political institution of Sunni Islam, was abolished with the end of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924. [2][3]

Islam generally discourages the use of representational imagery in religious contexts, leading to a rich tradition of geometric art, arabesque patterns, and calligraphy as primary visual expressions. Quranic calligraphy, the artistic rendering of Arabic script from the Quran, is one of the most highly developed art forms in Islamic civilization. [2][3]

The crescent moon and star, while widely associated with Islam today, originated as symbols of the Ottoman Empire rather than from Islamic scripture or early practice. They appear on the flags of several Muslim-majority countries but are not universally accepted as religious symbols. [2][3]

The color green is frequently associated with Islam and appears in many national flags and religious contexts, though this association is cultural rather than doctrinally prescribed. Mosques typically feature architectural elements including minarets (towers from which the call to prayer is given), domes, mihrabs (niches indicating the direction of Mecca), and minbars (pulpits). [2][3]

The Kaaba in Mecca, a cube-shaped structure draped in black cloth embroidered with gold Quranic verses, is the most sacred physical symbol in Islam and the focal point of the Hajj pilgrimage. [2][3]

Muhammad (c. 570-632 CE) is the central human figure in Islam, regarded as the final prophet and messenger of God. Born in Mecca, he received his first revelation at approximately age 40 and spent the remaining 23 years of his life receiving and transmitting the Quran, establishing the Muslim community, and providing a model of conduct (sunnah) that remains authoritative for Muslims. [2][3]

The four Rashidun (Rightly Guided) Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, led the Muslim community after Muhammad's death and oversaw its rapid expansion. Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, is particularly revered in Shia Islam as the first Imam. [2][3]

Husayn ibn Ali (626-680 CE), grandson of Muhammad, is a central figure in Shia Islam whose martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala is commemorated annually during Ashura. [2][3]

Major scholars and thinkers include al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (hadith compilation), Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (founders of the four Sunni legal schools), al-Ghazali (theology and Sufism), Ibn Rushd/Averroes (philosophy), and Ibn Khaldun (historiography). Rumi (1207-1273), the Sufi poet, remains one of the most widely read poets in the world. [2][3]

Islamic ethics are grounded in the Quran and the example (sunnah) of the Prophet Muhammad, as preserved in the hadith literature. The concept of taqwa (God-consciousness) underlies the ethical framework: awareness of God's presence should guide all human action. [2][3]

Core ethical principles include justice (adl), compassion (rahma), truthfulness (sidq), trustworthiness (amana), and generosity. The Quran repeatedly emphasizes care for orphans, the poor, travelers, and the vulnerable. Zakat (obligatory charity) institutionalizes this concern as a religious duty. [2][3]

Islamic law (sharia) provides a comprehensive ethical and legal framework covering worship, family law, commercial transactions, criminal law, and governance. The five categories of Islamic jurisprudence classify actions as obligatory, recommended, permissible, discouraged, or forbidden. Interpretations of sharia vary significantly across legal schools, historical periods, and modern contexts. [2][3]

Dietary ethics (halal/haram), business ethics (prohibition of usury/riba), and social ethics (respect for parents, neighbors, and community) are integral to daily Muslim life. Contemporary Muslim ethicists engage with issues including bioethics, environmental stewardship, human rights, gender relations, and economic justice, drawing on both classical sources and modern scholarship. [2][3]

Islamic eschatology teaches that every human being will face a Day of Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyama) when God will resurrect all people and judge them according to their deeds. This belief is a fundamental article of faith in Islam. [2][3]

After death, Muslims believe the soul enters a state called barzakh (an intermediate realm) until the Day of Resurrection. The Quran describes the questioning of the dead in the grave by two angels, Munkar and Nakir. [2][3]

On the Day of Judgment, each person's deeds will be weighed on a scale (mizan), and they will receive a record of their actions in either their right hand (indicating salvation) or their left hand (indicating condemnation). The Quran describes paradise (jannah) as a place of eternal bliss, gardens, rivers, and the pleasure of God's presence. Hell (jahannam) is described as a place of fire and punishment for those who rejected God and persisted in wrongdoing. [2][3]

Islamic theology generally holds that God's mercy is vast and that sincere repentance can lead to forgiveness. Some scholars have debated whether the punishment of hell is eternal for all its inhabitants or whether some may eventually be released through God's mercy. Intercession (shafa'a) by the Prophet Muhammad on behalf of sinners on the Day of Judgment is affirmed in many traditions. [2][3]

Islam emerged in the early 7th century CE in the Hejaz region of western Arabia, a landscape of trade routes, tribal societies, and diverse religious influences including Arabian polytheism, Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. [2][3]

Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born in Mecca around 570 CE into the Quraysh tribe. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised by his grandfather and then his uncle Abu Talib. He worked as a merchant and married Khadijah, a successful businesswoman, around age 25. [2][3]

At approximately age 40, while meditating in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca, Muhammad reported receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel (Jibril). These revelations continued over the next 23 years and were compiled into the Quran. Muhammad's early preaching of monotheism and social justice met with opposition from Meccan elites, leading to the Hijra (migration) to Medina in 622 CE. [2][3]

In Medina, Muhammad established a community (umma) governed by a constitution that defined relations among Muslims, Jews, and other groups. After several years of conflict with Mecca, Muhammad and his followers entered the city in 630 CE, and the Kaaba was rededicated to monotheistic worship. By the time of Muhammad's death in 632 CE, much of the Arabian Peninsula had come under Muslim influence. [2][3]

Curated books for deeper exploration, including beginner-friendly introductions, strong study editions, and broader academic overviews.

Links below are affiliate links. Purchases support ReligionCompare at no extra cost to you. See our affiliate disclosure.

1. Pew Research Center, religion reports and data portal.https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/
2. Encyclopaedia Britannica, religion reference entries.https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion
3. Oxford Reference, comparative religion resources.https://www.oxfordreference.com/
4. World Religion Database, global religion estimates.https://www.worldreligiondatabase.org/
5. CIA World Factbook, country-level demographic context.https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/
6. Marmaduke Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (1930), public domain edition.https://sacred-texts.com/isl/pick/